Israel’s wars on Lebanon and Gaza have ushered in an alarming era of digital warfare, amplifying the risk of inflicting even greater suffering on civilians and escalating the human cost of future conflicts worldwide.
Civilians in Lebanon have been the targets of various digital warfare tactics these past 14 months, especially after the beginning of the all-out war in late September: phishing attempts, phone hacking, threatening phone calls, false and misleading evacuation warnings, exploding communication devices, digital surveillance, GPS spoofing, telecom infrastructure destruction, and unwanted ads, among many other things. Such calculated tactics aimed at spreading terror among the civilian population, compounding the suffering of those already enduring relentless airstrikes.
Israel’s integration of digital manipulation with military threats disrupted daily life and left communities trapped in cycles of fear and confusion. The recently brokered temporary ceasefire in Lebanon, intended to last for 60 days, has already been violated multiple times within just seven days, with Israel reportedly breaching the agreement over 100 times, according to UN peacekeeping forces. In this volatile context, these digital violations and tactics could resurface at any moment. By targeting not only physical infrastructure but also the digital lives and the mental well-being of entire communities, this digital warfare establishes another chilling precedent for the region.
Pager attacks
Almost one year after the beginning of hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah, Israel launched a coordinated attack in mid-September by detonating thousands of pager devices reportedly used by Hezbollah members, killing 12 people and injuring some 2,750, including women, children, and other civilians. The following day, walkie-talkies set to be used by Hezbollah also exploded, again killing 20 people and wounding 450. While many were left hospitalized, the impact of these attacks extends beyond the immediate casualties. These explosions sparked widespread fear across Lebanon, fueling anxiety over the safety of personal communication devices like mobile phones, solar panels, and even door buzzers. While some fears stemmed from misinformation circulating online, they rapidly spread in the hours following the attacks, exacerbating anxiety and fueling a sense of vulnerability among civilians. These attacks, designed to terrorize, constitute a grave violation of international humanitarian law (IHL). In addition to prohibiting acts aimed at spreading fear among civilian populations, IHL also bans indiscriminate attacks. By remotely detonating hundreds of personal, non-military devices, Israeli authorities failed to uphold their duty to minimize harm to civilians and ensure that their actions exclusively targeted legitimate military objectives.
These attacks raise concerns about future weaponization of personal tech devices that blur the lines between physical and digital warfare
The nature of these attacks has sparked debates among experts. Initially, there was speculation linking the explosions to a cyberattack; however, it has since been confirmed that these devices contained a “small but potent charge of plastic explosive with a novel detonator.” In any case, these attacks raise concerns about future weaponization of personal tech devices that blur the lines between physical and digital warfare.
These attacks on communication devices were one of the many digital incursions by Israel in Lebanon. One notable tactic in Israel’s digital warfare arsenal has been GPS spoofing, which misleads devices reliant on global positioning systems. Originally intended to counter missile attacks from groups like Hezbollah, this tactic has caused extensive disruptions for civilians in their daily lives, but more particularly in civil aviation. For instance, earlier this year, a Turkish Airlines flight to Beirut was unable to land due to GPS interference, circling the airport for an extended period before being forced to return to Turkey.
Israel’s digital incursions have also infiltrated civilian digital spaces. For instance, Tinder users have reported seeing Israeli profiles—sometimes of users in military attire—appearing within a one kilometer radius of Beirut. While Tinder has a feature that allows users to change their location, the frequency of Israeli profiles showing up in Lebanon has led experts to speculate about possible intelligence-gathering efforts by using the app’s geolocalization features.
Alongside these digital manipulations, many residents in South Lebanon and the Beqaa Valley have reported receiving suspicious phone calls from local numbers. These conversations, initially unassuming, often turn into probes about residents’ whereabouts and routines. In some instances, people have been urged to visit bank branches despite not having accounts there. These incidents underscore the increasingly blurred lines between traditional warfare tactics and modern surveillance methods, highlighting how Lebanese civilians are often caught in the crossfire of these operations.
“What Israel has done publicly and privately shows how digital and tech threats can be so damaging to societies, especially the ones that do not have any protection or support from their own state like Lebanon,” explained Mohamad Najem, executive director of the Beirut-based digital rights organization SMEX.
Psychological war
Israel’s cyber capabilities are noted for their sophistication, employing advanced hacking techniques and phishing attacks on a global scale. As a leader in the commercial spyware industry, particularly through NSO Group’s Pegasus spyware, Israel has facilitated privacy invasions impacting activists worldwide.
“Israel’s spyware industry is bolstered and empowered by close ties with the military and intelligence agencies, enabling it to export its advanced spyware globally, thereby facilitating human rights abuses across the world,” said Rand Hammoud, Surveillance Campaigns Lead at Access Now.
Gaza has become a testing ground for Israeli technologies, transforming the afflicted enclave into a digital dystopia, where advanced Artificial Intelligence systems—including lethal autonomous weapons, facial recognition, and biometric surveillance—are deployed to control and target civilians. Once they are tested on the Palestinians, these tools are “then used on human rights defenders, journalists, lawyers and activists worldwide to suppress dissent,” added Hammoud.
While these warnings were officially aimed to protect civilians, they often fell short of international humanitarian law standards
In Lebanon, Israeli military officials issued evacuation orders via phone calls, text messages, and posts on X. While these warnings were officially aimed to protect civilians, they often fell short of international humanitarian law standards. According to Amnesty International, many were inadequate and misleading, lacking clear timelines and misrepresenting danger zones, which created confusion and panic. International humanitarian law mandates that evacuation orders must serve the sole purpose of protecting the civilian population, be used only as an exceptional measure, and remain in effect for the strictest amount of time necessary. Instead, some warnings were issued just minutes before strikes, leaving civilians with little time to escape, while others were entirely absent, further endangering lives.
Civilians in South Lebanon and the Beqaa also reported receiving calls from local numbers, with messages urging them to “stay away until further notice from villages where Hezbollah weapons are stored.”
“This is a psychological war against us, and an attempt to increase threats on everyone in the country,” added SMEX’s Najem.
Digital vulnerabilities
For years, Lebanon’s lack of a comprehensive data protection law and oversight authority has left people’s personal information exposed and open to Israeli military intrusions. Even if stronger legal frameworks were introduced now, significant damage has already been done as experts believe Israel has accessed and exploited data from millions of Lebanese for years.
In October and November, phishing attacks on platforms like WhatsApp surged, fueling widespread fears of surveillance. SMEX has highlighted these concerns, linking them to Israel’s use of advanced surveillance technologies targeting civilians and government entities. This anxiety was further heightened by WhatsApp glitches. Residents of South Lebanon have also reported receiving compromising messages from unknown numbers, revealing personal details such as phone numbers and places of residence.
Numerous phishing links were also distributed as broadcast messages, impersonating international organizations such as the World Food Program or political figures. These messages claim to offer funds or spread disinformation, exploiting public fear and confusion. According to SMEX’s Helpdesk, the primary objective of these links appears to be stealing account credentials through malware designed to capture data, install trackers, or harvest metadata from affected devices.
Digital surveillance
Israel’s surveillance operations include continuous aerial reconnaissance, with drones deployed for real-time data collection. Khalil Helou, a retired Lebanese army general, noted that “the drones themselves aren’t new,” adding that “Israel has been sending reconnaissance drones into Lebanese territory since 2020.” The first recorded use dates back to 1982 during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, marking the beginning of a long history of drone surveillance in the region. The drones of today are equipped to monitor movements, intercept communications, gather location-based data, and identify potential targets.
Beyond aerial surveillance, Israel also relies on social media for intelligence gathering, as has been documented in the past in Palestine. In Lebanon, digital platforms have been reportedly monitored to assess public sentiment. “Every small detail about people and their lives, even if it appears mundane or trivial, is instrumental for influence or Psychological Operations,” said Marwa Fatafta, MENA Policy and Advocacy Director at digital rights organization Access Now.
“Lebanon is already a frail country with a long history of sectarian violence and strife, which makes such targeted campaigns to manipulate people and sow division between communities deeply terrifying” – Marwa Fatafta
Israel’s digital incursions include the use of online ads in the context of its war on Gaza, which feature pro-war messages and reflect a strategy to shape public perception through digital channels. “Social media is a delicious honey pot for Israel, both in terms of surveillance and the ability to micro-target people with their propaganda on online platforms. Lebanon is already a frail country with a long history of sectarian violence and strife, which makes such targeted campaigns to manipulate people and sow division between communities deeply terrifying,” said Fatafta.
A recent Financial Times report suggests that Israel had infiltrated Hezbollah’s digital presence by analyzing obituary posts shared on social media during the war in Syria. These tactics revealed key details about Hezbollah members’ hometowns, circumstances of death, and social networks, at times exposing high-ranking officials. Israel may also have covertly embedded surveillance devices as well as infiltrated Hezbollah’s fiber-optic network, built after the 2006 war between the group and Israel. While this would potentially grant Israel extensive access to information, evidence of such infiltration remains inconclusive, leaving questions about the full extent of Israel’s digital invasion.
Connectivity issues
Israel’s attacks on Lebanon’s telecom infrastructure are a troubling development, and the ongoing genocide in Gaza highlights the severe impact of such attacks. By October 24, Lebanon’s telecom infrastructure, already weakened by the financial collapse, had sustained nearly $67 million in damages due to Israel’s attacks. This impacts Ogero, the country’s telecom provider, and mobile operators Alfa and Touch. According to Telecommunications Minister Johnny Corm, hundreds of transmissions stations were out of service throughout the country.
On October 1, for instance, an Israeli airstrike destroyed a major internet station in Al-Zahrani, cutting off nearby villages and forcing residents to rely on costly cellular data. Further attacks targeted telecom towers in Beirut’s southern suburbs. By early October, 113 of Touch’s mobile stations were out of service, 61 due to security issues and 15 due to theft, alongside 114 stations from Alfa. Ogero also reported that 26 out of its 266 stations were down, affecting 15,000 subscribers.
As a result, internet access has been negatively impacted, with some areas suffering near-complete internet outages. Residents sometimes had to rely on costly cellular data, if available, whenever the internet was cut off. Journalists and researchers have also reported difficulties using 4G networks, which has hindered their ability to report and communicate from the ground.
Despite emergency measures, Lebanon’s telecom sector was, and remains, underprepared for sustained attacks. This highlights the critical need to treat internet connectivity as essential to the survival of the civilian population and the delivery of humanitarian assistance. Under international humanitarian law, related infrastructure and personnel must be treated as specially protected objects and persons. Lebanon must urgently invest in secure and resilient communication networks to safeguard its population and ensure compliance with these protections.
A need to address digital warfare
Israel’s expanding use of digital warfare in Lebanon serves as a stark and brutal reminder of the digital dimension of modern conflicts, where psychological tactics and digital intrusions operate alongside conventional military strikes. This dual approach not only creates immediate chaos but leaves long-lasting scars on public trust and the sense of security. With the war on Gaza serving as a blueprint, the situation in Lebanon underscores a troubling precedent for civilian-targeted digital warfare in the region.
The implications of this shift extend beyond the immediate threats to life and property by impacting Lebanon’s efforts toward self-reliance in telecommunications, the fundamental rights of its citizens, and the resilience of its civic infrastructure.
As digital warfare becomes entrenched in regional conflict, the need for robust defenses, transparent international oversight, and accountability grows more urgent
In addition, Israel’s access to civilian phone numbers in Lebanon raises serious concerns about how this data is obtained, emphasizing the need for stronger cybersecurity measures and data protection safeguards. Minimizing the collection and processing of personal data can reduce the risks of such sensitive information being exploited by foreign states.
Notably, even after the ceasefire was announced in Lebanon, Israel’s attacks have continued. While digital warfare tactics during the conflict caused significant harm, their effects often persist long after military hostilities have subsided. This underscores the pressing need for a “digital ceasefire,” where all forms of digital aggression are halted alongside physical hostilities. The fragile nature of the current ceasefire, marked by ongoing tit-for-tat strikes between Israel and Hezbollah, highlights the critical need for enforceable international norms to protect civilians from both physical and digital harm. Even when military attacks pause, the enduring digital harms inflicted on civilian populations further destabilize their lives and communities.
As digital warfare becomes entrenched in regional conflict, the need for robust defenses, transparent international oversight, and accountability grows more urgent. Lebanon’s government, alongside international bodies, must act to bolster cyber protections, safeguard communication channels, and address legal loopholes that leave civilians exposed.
The stakes have never been higher: without decisive action, digital warfare will continue to erode not only Lebanon’s sovereignty but the very fabric of civilian life.
Kassem Mnejja is a Nonresident Fellow at TIMEP focusing on digital rights and cyberspace across the MENA region with a particular interest in internet shutdowns.